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Millstones | HISTORY OF TECHNOLOGY

Millstones

The milling of grain into flour, previously done by hand on a rough flat stone, achieves a major technological advance with the introduction of heavy stones which grind against each other to crush the seeds between them....

The Athenian administration | HISTORY OF DEMOCRACY

The Athenian administration

The functions associated with a modern civil service are carried out in Athens by citizens chosen randomly by lot. Such tasks range from supervising the markets and checking weights and measures to keeping the minutes of...

Generals and treasurers | HISTORY OF DEMOCRACY

Generals and treasurers

The effective leaders of Athens, because of their responsibility for war (an almost constant state of affairs), are the ten strategoi or generals. There is one from each of the ten tribes, elected each year by the...

Athenian democracy | HISTORY OF DEMOCRACY

Athenian democracy

In the 5th century BC Athens pioneers an experiment in direct democracy, as opposed to the representative democracy of modern societies. It is copied by her Greek allies and colonies at the time, but it has rarely been a...

Paper | HISTORY OF WRITING MATERIALS

Paper

Chinese tradition attributes one of the most wide-reaching of inventions to a eunuch at the imperial court, by the name of Cai Lun, in the year AD 105.
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Paper | INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES

Paper

Chinese tradition attributes one of the most wide-reaching of inventions to a eunuch at the imperial court, by the name of Cai Lun, in the year AD 105.
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Greece has always been the main | HISTORY OF CHRISTIANITY

A new Rome

Greece has always been the main cultural influence on Rome, and Greek is the language of the inhabitants of Byzantium. With the founding of Constantinople, the older culture effectively absorbs its vigorous younger chall...

Greece has always been the main | HISTORY OF ROME

A new Rome

Greece has always been the main cultural influence on Rome, and Greek is the language of the inhabitants of Byzantium. With the founding of Constantinople, the older culture effectively absorbs its vigorous younger chall...

Greece has always been the main | HISTORY OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

A new Rome

Greece has always been the main cultural influence on Rome, and Greek is the language of the inhabitants of Byzantium. With the founding of Constantinople, the older culture effectively absorbs its vigorous younger chall...

Greece has always been the main | HISTORY OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

A new Rome

Greece has always been the main cultural influence on Rome, and Greek is the language of the inhabitants of Byzantium. With the founding of Constantinople, the older culture effectively absorbs its vigorous younger chall...

Greece has always been the main | CONSTANTINE

A new Rome

Greece has always been the main cultural influence on Rome, and Greek is the language of the inhabitants of Byzantium. With the founding of Constantinople, the older culture effectively absorbs its vigorous younger chall...

Greece, in the century following Parmenides, | HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE

Athens

Greece, in the century following Parmenides, sees the rise of a professional class often described as philosophers. They are the Sophists, who derive their name from the same Greek root, sophos. But unlike pure ph...

Greece, in the century following Parmenides, | HISTORY OF LITERATURE

Athens

Greece, in the century following Parmenides, sees the rise of a professional class often described as philosophers. They are the Sophists, who derive their name from the same Greek root, sophos. But unlike pure ph...

Greece languishes under Roman rule. The | HISTORY OF ATHENS

The long decline

Greece languishes under Roman rule. The Roman example may civilize the more primitive western empire. But Greek civilization loses its vitality in a provincial setting, even though the influence of Greek culture is now s...

Greece in the classical period makes | HISTORY OF PAINTING

The Greek classical ideal

Greece in the classical period makes the innovations which underlie the mainstream western tradition in art. This is true of both painting and sculpture.

The essential characteristic of classical Greek art is a...

Greece in the classical period makes | HISTORY OF SCULPTURE

The Greek classical ideal

Greece in the classical period makes the innovations which underlie the mainstream western tradition in art. This is true of both painting and sculpture.

The essential characteristic of classical Greek art is a...

Classical Greece has produced a brilliant | HISTORY OF ALEXANDRIA

Greek science in Alexandria

Classical Greece has produced a brilliant tradition of theorists, the dreamers of science. Attracted by the intellectual appeal of good theories, they are disinclined to engage in the manual labour of the laboratory wher...

Classical Greece has produced a brilliant | HISTORY OF GREEK SCIENCE

Greek science in Alexandria

Classical Greece has produced a brilliant tradition of theorists, the dreamers of science. Attracted by the intellectual appeal of good theories, they are disinclined to engage in the manual labour of the laboratory wher...

Classical Greece has produced a brilliant | HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY

Greek science in Alexandria

Classical Greece has produced a brilliant tradition of theorists, the dreamers of science. Attracted by the intellectual appeal of good theories, they are disinclined to engage in the manual labour of the laboratory wher...

Although Greece is geographically close to | HISTORY OF THE ARABS

Greek to Latin via Arabic

Although Greece is geographically close to Italy, and Greek literature is highly prized in ancient Rome, western Europe loses touch with its Greek intellectual roots during the centuries after the collapse of the Roman e...

Although Greece is geographically close to | HISTORY OF LITERATURE

Greek to Latin via Arabic

Although Greece is geographically close to Italy, and Greek literature is highly prized in ancient Rome, western Europe loses touch with its Greek intellectual roots during the centuries after the collapse of the Roman e...

In both Greece and Rome the | HISTORY OF RELIGION

Greek and Roman gods

In both Greece and Rome the many gods of the pantheon have their own local shrines. The most important of these are magnificent buildings, set in elaborate architectural precincts. Famous examples are the temple to Apoll...

Macedonian control in Greece is established | HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE

Aristotle

Macedonian control in Greece is established after a congress at Corinth in 337, and in 335 Aristotle returns to Athens. He now sets up his own school in the peripatos or covered walkway of the Lyceum, one of the l...

Macedonian control in Greece is established | HISTORY OF LITERATURE

Aristotle

Macedonian control in Greece is established after a congress at Corinth in 337, and in 335 Aristotle returns to Athens. He now sets up his own school in the peripatos or covered walkway of the Lyceum, one of the l...

The whole of Greece seems to | HISTORY OF GREECE

Macedonia after Alexander

The whole of Greece seems to hold its breath during the astonishing saga of Alexander's conquests in the east. His regent in Macedonia (Antipater, one of his father's most trusted generals) keeps the region calmly under...

The whole of Greece seems to | HISTORY OF MACEDONIA

Macedonia after Alexander

The whole of Greece seems to hold its breath during the astonishing saga of Alexander's conquests in the east. His regent in Macedonia (Antipater, one of his father's most trusted generals) keeps the region calmly under...

Banking activities in Greece are more | HISTORY OF MONEY

Greek and Roman financiers

Banking activities in Greece are more varied and sophisticated than in any previous society. Private entrepreneurs, as well as temples and public bodies, now undertake financial transactions. They take deposits, make loa...

Banking activities in Greece are more | HISTORY OF BANKING

Greek and Roman financiers

Banking activities in Greece are more varied and sophisticated than in any previous society. Private entrepreneurs, as well as temples and public bodies, now undertake financial transactions. They take deposits, make loa...

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