Octavian defeats the forces of Antony and Cleopatra (both are at sea with their fleets) in a battle off the Greek coast at Actium

The defeat of three Roman legions in the Teutoberg Forest by Arminius, establishes the Rhine as a natural boundary of the Roman empire

The Visigoths inflict a devastating defeat on a Roman army at Adrianople, and win for themselves the status of Roman federates

Attila and the Huns invade Gaul but are defeated, somewhere near Troyes, by a Roman army supported by Visigoths and Burgundians

Othman is assassinated, and Ali wins power as the fourth Muslim caliph - defeating Muhammad's widow Aisha at the 'battle of the camel' near Basra

Husayn, the son of Ali, dies at Karbala in a battle against rival Muslims and becomes the most holy of Shi'ite martyrs

The Muslim advance into France is halted when Charles Martel defeats the Arabs between Poitiers and Tours

Brian Boru, aged 73, achieves a major victory over the Vikings at Clontarf but is killed in his tent after the battle

In a battle near Elgin Macbeth kills his cousin Duncan, a rival claimant to the Scottish throne

Harold defeats at Stamford Bridge the joint army of his brother Tostig and of the Norwegian king, Harald Hardraade

Harold, hurrying south to confront the Normans after his victory at Stamford Bridge, is defeated and killed at Hastings

The Seljuk Turks and the Byzantines meet in battle at Manzikert, with victory going to the Turks

Saladin destroys the Christian army of the Latin kingdom in a battle below the Horns of Hattin

Alexander, a Russian prince, defeats a Swedish army on the frozen river Neva, thus winning his name Alexander Nevksy

Mongols of the Golden Horde defeat the Poles at Legnica and ravage the city of Cracow

At Ayn Jalut, near Nazareth, the Egyptian Mamelukes defeat the Mongol army of Hulagu - the first military setback for the Mongols

A Scottish victory over the Norwegians at Largs results in the recovery of the western isles

Simon de Montfort, leading the barons in rebellion, captures Henry III and his son Edward at Lewes

Prince Edward, escaping from captivity, defeats and kills Simon de Montfort at Evesham

William Wallace's victory over the English at Stirling Bridge enables him to rule Scotland on behalf of John de Balliol

Edward I's victory at Falkirk ends the career of William Wallace, of whom nothing more is heard until his capture and execution in 1305

After years of guerilla warfare, Robert de Bruce defeats the English conclusively at Bannockburn - and becomes at last secure in his kingdom

The Swiss, defeating the Habsburgs at Morgarten, make lethal use of their halberds - designed to jab, grapple and slash

The more mobile English force, of longbows and infantry, defeats at Crécy the unwieldy crossbows and heavy cavalry of the French

The battle of Poitiers ends, on the third day, with victory for the English and the capture of the French king, John II