The city of Alkmaar is saved when the Dutch breach their own dikes, threatening the Spanish troops with death by drowning

Stefan Báthory, prince of Transylvania, is elected king of Poland

The armies of Spain develop a powerful version of the ancient phalanx, which becomes known as the Spanish square

English sailor and slave-trader John Hawkins turns the top-heavy carrack into the more seaworthy galleon

Soft-paste porcelain, in imitation of true porcelain from China, is successfully created for the Medici in Florence

The Pacification of Ghent unites all the provinces of the Netherlands in opposition to Spain

James Burbage builds London's first theatre and calls it the Theatre

Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe builds Uraniborg, on the island of Hven, and makes it the world's leading observatory

Francis Drake sails from Plymouth, heading west for the Pacific and the East Indies

Domenikos Theotokopoulos moves to Spain, where he becomes known as El Greco

The Union of Arras and the Union of Utrecht split the Netherlands into Catholic and Protestant camps

A Spanish army marches into Portugal to claim the crown for the king of Spain, Philip II

The first Jesuit missionaries arrive in England, with Edmund Campion among their number

Francis Drake returns to England after his three-year voyage round the world and is knighted by Queen Elizabeth on board his Golden Hind

French author Michel de Montaigne, in his library tower, produces Europe's first volume of essays – published in this year under the simple title Essais

In the Oath of Abjuration the northern provinces of the Netherlands formally reject the rule of the Spanish king, Philip II

The first dramatic ballet, the Balet Comique de la Reine, is presented during French wedding festivities

Tasso, in Gerusalemme Liberata ('Jerusalem Liberated'), turns the first crusade into a romantic epic

Finland is granted the status of a separate grand duchy within the realm of Sweden

The new and more accurate Gregorian calendar is introduced by Gregory XIII in the papal states

The 18-year-old William Shakespeare marries Anne Hathaway in Stratford-upon-Avon

Humphrey Gilbert claims Newfoundland on behalf of England's queen Elizabeth

England's queen Elizabeth sends 6000 troops to support the Dutch rebels against Spain

Catholics are now the martyrs in England, their numbers almost matching the Protestant martyrs of the previous reign

Anthony Babington is involved in a plot to assassinate Elizabeth and place Mary Queen of Scots on the English throne